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En este apartado, el equipo de trabajo de C-Intereg  junto con otros investigadores, quieren compartir material relevante para el desarrollo de investigaciones científicas en el ámbito del análisis empírico del comercio interregional e internacional.

Análisis estadístico

En muchos casos, se presentan tal y como han sido desarrollados en publicaciones académicas o proyectos desarrollados a raíz de nuestros datos. Se trata de bases de datos complementarias a las oficiales publicadas en el proyecto. En algunos casos pueden incluir tratamientos metodológicos complementarios a los del dato oficial del proyecto. Por ello, no se considera material oficial del proyecto. Están pensados específicamente para investigadores interesados en testar modelos estadísticos y econométricos, más que en su uso en el marco de estudios descriptivos o de implicación política, que busquen el dato en “nivel” más actualizado. En algunos casos, por motivos de confidencialidad de los datos, las muestras pueden ser parciales o presentarse de forma más agregada a como aparecen en la publicación original.

Dado que esta información se ofrece en abierto y de modo gratuito los usuarios deberán citar en cada caso los artículos que se indican para cada uno de ellos:

Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo:
Llano, C., Pérez-Balsalobre S., Pérez-García J. (2018): Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Intra-National Freight Transport: Measurement and Scenarios for Greater Sustainability in Spain. Sustainability, 10, 2467.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072467
Descripción: Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions is a topic of major concern worldwide. Following previous articles which provide a methodology for estimating GHG emissions associated with international trade by transport mode at the world level, in this paper, we estimate an equivalent database of GHG emissions for inter-regional trade flows within a country (Spain). To this end, we built a new database of GHG emissions for origin–destination flows between Spanish provinces during 1995–2015. For each year, we combine industry-specific flows by four transport modes (road, train, ship and aircraft) with the corresponding GHG emissions factor for each mode in tons*km, drawn from the specialized literature. With this dataset of GHG emissions, we generate and analyze the temporal, sectoral and spatial pattern of Spanish inter-regional GHG flows. We then forecast emissions for 2016–2030 and consider how transport mode shifts might produce a more sustainable freight system within the country through the substitution of environmentally friendly alternatives (railway) for specific origin–destination–product flows in high-polluting modes (road).
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo:
Llano, C., De la Mata, T., Diaz-Lanchas, J., Gallego, N, (2017) Transport-mode competition in intra-national trade: An empirical investigation for the Spanish case. Transportation Research Part A, 95, 334–355.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2016.10.023
Descripción: Trade within and between countries can take place by alternative transport modes. Economic and logistical complexity is fostering multimodality as well as transport-mode competition. The international trade literature has given little attention to this issue. The aim of this paper is to analyze transport-mode competition in inter-provincial deliveries within Spain. To this end, we use a detailed dataset with fifty inter-provincial, industry-specific flows by four transport modes (road, train, ship and aircraft). We then feed this dataset into various specifications of a gravity model that incorporates cross-sectional dependence attributable to unobservable factors directly associated with the presence of transport-mode competition schemes. In considering alternative distance segments, we also test for competition effects between road and the other three modes.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo:
Gallego, N, Llano, C., De la Mata, T., Diaz-Lanchas, J. (2015) Intranational Home Bias in the Presence of Wholesalers, Hub-spoke Structures. and Multimodal Transport Deliveries. Spatial Economic Analysis, 10 (3), 369-399.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17421772.2015.1062126
Descripción: When modelling interregional flows it is standard to identify the origin and destination of a flow with the point of production and consumption. However, the presence of hub-spoke structures or multimodal flows may introduce bias, such as being an additional source for cross-sectional correlation between dyadic flows. The aim of this paper is to model inter-provincial flows within a country (Spain) considering this potential bias using a novel dataset with 50 inter-provincial flows and four transport modes. We then feed this dataset into various specifications of a gravity model that incorporates cross-sectional dependence attributable to hub-spoke structures.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo:
Gallego N., Llano C. (2015): “Thick and thin borders in the EU: how deep internal integration is within countries, and how shallow between them”. The World Economy.
https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.12242 
Descripción: The existence of large border effects is one of the main puzzles of international macroeconomics. The seminal paper by McCallum found that trade between any two Canadian provinces was (on average) 22 times greater than trade between any Canadian province and any US state. Although various authors have estimated internal and external border effects for the whole European Union and some specific European countries, none has done so in the manner that McCallum’s seminal paper, stymied by lack of data on region‐to‐region international trade flows. This study uses a novel data set that captures intra and international truck shipments between Spanish regions and regions in seven European countries during the period 2004–11. It computes internal and external border effects, offering novel results for aggregate flows and the importing countries, and estimates several specifications of the gravity equation, so as to tackle such issues as the multilateral resistance term, heteroscedasticity, and zero flows and non‐linear relation between trade and distance. The paper also adds a detailed analysis on the external border effect for each Spanish exporting region and each of the seven European countries considered. By means of this analysis, we shed new light on the relative integration between regions of these seven countries and Spanish exporting regions. Finally, we conduct an extrapolation exercise, computing the ‘trade potentials’ that would be expected in a fully integrated Europe and estimating how long full integration would take to achieve between each Spanish exporting region and each European importing country. To this regard, two alternative scenarios are considered: one using the growth rates of the Spanish exports before the crisis (2001–08) and other considering the post‐crisis growth rates (2011–13).
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo:
Gallego N., Llano C., (2014): “The Border Effect and the Non-Linear Relationship between Trade and Distance”. Review of International Economics, 22(5), 1016-1048.
https://doi.org/10.1111/roie.12152.
Descripción: The border‐effect literature confirms that sub‐national units tend to trade more with the rest of their country than with foreign markets. However, it is likely that ongoing processes of trade integration will generate a trade‐off between internal and external integration for sub‐national units within countries. In this paper we estimate the internal and external border effect, using a novel dataset that captures intra‐ and international shipments between Spanish regions and regions in eight European countries with alternative treatments of the nonlinear relationship between distance and trade.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo:
LeSage, James P., Carlos Llano-Verduras (2014). “Forecasting spatially dependent origin and destination commodity flows”. Empirical Economics, 47, 4, 1543–1562
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-013-0786-2
Descripción: We explore origin–destination forecasting of commodity flows between 15 Spanish regions, using data covering the period from 1995 to 2004. The 1-year-ahead forecasts are based on a recently introduced spatial autoregressive variant of the traditional gravity model. Gravity (or spatial interaction models) attempt to explain variation in N=n2  flows between n origin and destination regions that reflect a vector arising from an n by n  flow matrix. The spatial autoregressive variant of the gravity model used here takes into account spatial dependence between flows from regions neighboring both the origin and destinations during estimation and forecasting. One-year-ahead forecast accuracy of non-spatial and spatial models are compared.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
de la Mata, T. & Llano (2013), “Social networks and trade of services: modelling interregional flows with spatial and network autocorrelation effects”. Journal of Geographical Systems. Journal of Geographical Systems, 15, 3, 319-367
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10109-013-0183-6
Descripción: Recent literature on border effect has fostered research on informal barriers to trade and the role played by network dependencies. In relation to social networks, it has been shown that intensity of trade in goods is positively correlated with migration flows between pairs of countries/regions. In this article, we investigate whether such a relation also holds for interregional trade of services. We also consider whether interregional trade flows in services linked with tourism exhibit spatial and/or social network dependence. Conventional empirical gravity models assume the magnitude of bilateral flows between regions is independent of flows to/from regions located nearby in space, or flows to/from regions related through social/cultural/ethic network connections. With this aim, we provide estimates from a set of gravity models showing evidence of statistically significant spatial and network (demographic) dependence in the bilateral flows of the trade of services considered. The analysis has been applied to the Spanish intra- and interregional monetary flows of services from the accommodation, restaurants and travel agencies for the period 2000–2009, using alternative datasets for the migration stocks and definitions of network effects.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
de la Mata, T. & Llano (2013), “Modeling the effect of Social-Network on interregional Trade of Services: how sensitive are the results to alternative measures of social linkages”. In Spatial Econometric Interaction Modelling. Editors: Patuelli, Roberto, Arbia, Giuseppe (Eds.)
https://www.springer.com/fr/book/9783319301945
Descripción: Recent literature has investigated the impact of social and business networks on the intensity of trade in goods between countries and within countries and the role played by these networks in the reduction of the border effect. This literature has found that such flows are positively correlated with migration stocks between pairs of countries/regions as well as firms linked through their stakeholders. In this study we investigate whether any such relation holds for interregional trade in services, focusing on the case of Spanish intra- and interregional monetary flows generated by certain domestic tourism sectors: namely, the hospitality and restaurant industries and travel agencies. With this aim, we develop a gravity model that captures spatial and network dependence attributable to demographic links between regions. In a previous paper we found that interregional network links had an enhancing effect on trade in services, when they were computed with stocks of immigrants born in exporting region and residing in the importing region. In this extension we explore a number of alternative sources for the information and taste effects. To this end, we consider such alternative mechanisms for face-to-face interaction as “mixed marriages”, second-home stocks and previous tourist flows, as well as other sources of social interaction (interregional mail and parcel deliveries; professional interactions through the trade in goods, etc.).
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
LeSage J.P., Llano, C (2013): “A Spatial interaction Model with Spatially Structured Origin and Destination Effects”. Journal of Geographical Systems, 15, 3, 265-289.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10109-013-0181-8
Descripción: We introduce a Bayesian hierarchical regression model that extends the traditional least-squares regression model used to estimate gravity or spatial interaction relations involving origin-destination flows. Spatial interaction models attempt to explain variation in flows from n origin regions to n destination regions resulting in a sample of N = n 2 observations that reflect an n by n flow matrix converted to a vector. Explanatory variables typically include origin and destination characteristics as well as distance between each region and all other regions. Our extension introduces latent spatial effects parameters structured to follow a spatial autoregressive process. Individual effects parameters are included in the model to reflect latent or unobservable influences at work that are unique to each region treated as an origin and destination. That is, we estimate 2n individual effects parameters using the sample of N = n 2 observations. We illustrate the method using a sample of commodity flows between 18 Spanish regions during the 2002 period.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
Garmendia, A., Llano-Verduras, C. and Requena-Silvente, F. (2012) “Network and the disappearance of the intranational home bias”, Economic Letters 116, 178-182.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2012.02.021
Descripción: Previous studies have shown that, not only countries, but also regions have a preference to trade within their administrative borders. Using unique trade flows data, we also find a large home bias in Spanish intranational trade. However, we show that this home bias tends to disappear once we take into account the higher density of social and business networks within regions than between regions. We also find that the home bias does not disappear if intranational trade flows are measured in quantity rather than value. This fact might explain why previous studies on other European countries still find an intranational home bias, even when network effects are taken into account.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
De la Mata, T. Llano C., (2012): “Spatial pattern and domestic tourism: an econometric analysis using inter-regional monetary flows by type of journey”. Papers in Regional Science, 91, 2, 437–470.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1435-5957.2011.00376.x
Descripción: In this paper, we develop an econometric analysis of the intra‐ and interregional trade flows of the accommodation, restaurant industry, and travel agency sectors in Spain by means of several specifications of the gravity model and three alternative databases containing the monetary flows for 2001 and 2007. The results obtained show the existence of an important border effect in favour of the intraregional trade of tourism, and verify a minor elasticity of the trade flows in some characteristic tourism sectors in relation to distance. Finally, the two main typologies of flows – tourist establishments and second homes – are modelled separately, identifying specific factors for explaining each category.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
Llano-Verduras C., Minondo, A. Requena-Silvente, F. (2011) “Is the border effect an artefact of geographic aggregation?”. The World Economy, 34,10, 1771-1787.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.2011.01398.x
Descripción: The existence of a large border effect is considered as one of the main puzzles of international macroeconomics. We show that the border effect is, to a large extent, an artefact of geographical concentration. To do so, we combine international flows with intra‐national flows data characterised by a high geographical grid. At this fine grid, intra‐national flows are highly localised and dropping sharply with distance. The use of a small geographical unit of reference to measure intra‐national bilateral trade flows allows to estimating correctly the negative impact of distance on shipments. When we use sector disaggregated export flows of 50 Spanish provinces in years 2000 and 2005 split into inter‐provincial and inter‐national flows, we find that the border effect is reduced substantially and even becomes statistically not different from zero in some estimations.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
Artal, A.; Llano, C.; Requena, F. (2011): “The factor content of bilateral trade: evidence from Spanish regions”. International Review of Economic and Finance. 20, 2, 157–172.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2010.11.005
Descripción: The Heckscher–Ohlin–Vanek (HOV) model in its strict form has been strongly rejected by the data. Relaxing some assumptions of the standard HOV model is key to find improvements in its performance. We apply the Davis and Weinstein (2001) methodology to analyse the validity of the HOV model using regions rather than countries. Surprisingly, our results using data for 17 Spanish regions are similar to theirs with international data for OECD countries. Accounting for technological differences improves the predictive capacity of the factor proportions model and including trade costs and geography reduces significantly the missing trade problem. However, relaxing the assumption of factor price equalisation does not improve the performance of the HOV model in a regional setting.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
De la Mata, T; Llano (2010): “Modelo gravitatorio y turismo: una aplicación al comercio inter-regional del sector Turismo en España”. Revista de Estudios Regionales. Nº 89, 211-243.
Descripción: 
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
Gallego N., Llano C., Pérez J. (2010): “Estimación de los flujos de transporte de mercancías interregionales trimestrales mediante técnicas de interpolación temporal”, Revista de Estudios de Economía Aplicada, 28-3, 699-738.
Descripción: 
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
Llano, C., Esteban, A., Pulido, A., Pérez, J (2010): “Opening the Interregional Trade Black Box: The C-intereg Database for the Spanish Economy (1995-2005)”. International Regional Science Review, 33, 302-337.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0160017610370701 
Descripción: Recent literature on border effect has demonstrated that national trade (intra- as well as interregional trade) tends to be more intense than international trade. Unfortunately, owing to the dearth of information on interregional economic relations, this important aspect of the economy has remained relatively ignored. In this article, the authors have described the methodology and main results of the largest estimation of Spanish interregional trade (1995—2005) carried out as a part of the C-Intereg project. The results obtained highlight the importance of the internal trade and the validity of the gravity model. Although the estimation focuses on the Spanish economy, the methodology can easily be applied to other European Union (EU) countries. In the upcoming years, this innovative database will be further developed in all its dimensions (space, time, and sectors) to serve as a promising framework for the application of different techniques such as spatial interaction models or interregional input—output approaches.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
Ghemawat P., Llano C., Requena F., (2010): “Competitiveness and interregional as well as international trade: The case of Catalonia”. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 28 (2010) 415–422.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijindorg.2010.03.013
Descripción: Recent years have seen a surge of interest among industrial organization economists in using data on international trade flows as windows into competitiveness. For countries that are at least mid-sized (e.g., Spain), interregional trade tends to be as large as or significantly larger than international trade. The case of Catalonia, a Spanish region, illustrates how ignoring interregional flows can lead to erroneous inferences about a region’s external competitiveness. Accounting for Catalonia’s interregional as well as international flows shifts what is generally assessed to be a chronic trade deficit in goods into a surplus and changes diagnoses of which Catalan sectors generate external surpluses and who its key trading partners are. We also use a gravity model approach to estimate international border effects for Catalonia.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
Requena F.; Llano C. (2010): “The Border Effects in Spain: An Industry-Level Analysis”. Empirica, 37:455–476.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-010-9123-6
Descripción: A gravity-model approach is used to estimate the magnitude of the internal border (home bias) and external border (frontier) effects in Spain using industry-level trade flows. We find that the average border effects are about 30 and 10, respectively. Next we explore the variation in the industry-specific border effects. First, the border effects are larger in highly product differentiated industries. Second, the internal border effect is twice bigger for trade in intermediate goods than for trade in final goods. Third, conditioning on the geographic concentration of firms reduces significantly the internal border effect.
Data Code Working paper
Si se utilizan los datos/código disponibles más abajo, citar el siguiente artículo: 
Artal, A.; Llano, C.; Requena, F. (2009): “Factor productivity differences and missing trade problems in a regional HOV model”. Papers in Regional Science, 89, 4, 759-776.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1435-5957.2009.00266.x
Descripción: Recent empirical papers testing the performance of the Heckscher‐Ohlin‐Vanek (HOV) model suggest the need to relax its restrictive assumptions in order to reconcile the theory with the data. This paper examines whether introducing factor productivity differences could help to improve the performance of the HOV model in a regional setting. Using a new dataset of 17 Spanish regions and three different HOV specifications, this paper seeks the existence of Hicks‐neutral (HN) or factor‐augmenting industry‐neutral (FAIN) technological differences. The data support the existence of HN technological differences, which contributes to a remarkable improvement of the regional HOV performance since the so‐called missing trade problem largely disappears.
Data Code Working paper

 

 

Curiosidades

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Distancias entre comunidades españolas en Kilómetros:

  • Distancia geodésica (línea recta).
  • Distancia geodésica entre las principales ciudades de cada CCAA, ponderada por su población.
  • Distancia realmente recorrida según los movimientos de transporte de carretera en camiones españoles. Elaboración propia a partir de la EPTMC.

Distancias entre provincias españolas en Kilómetros:

  • Distancia geodésica (línea recta).
  • Distancia geodésica entre las principales ciudades de cada Provincia, ponderada por su población.
  • Distancias óptimas entre provincias por carretera. Obtenidas por GIS a partir de la red actual de carreteras.
  • Distancias óptimas entre provincias por ferrocarril. Obtenidas por GIS a partir de la red actual de ferrocarril.
  • Distancias óptimas entre provincias por barco.
  • Distancias óptimas entre provincias por avión.
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